paradigms

Low-level

Closest to machine code, using mnemonics to directly control hardware

– Direct memory access
– Register manipulation
– Hardware-specific instructions

x86 Assembly, ARM Assembly

Imperative (Procedural)

Tells the computer how to perform tasks using sequences of commands

– Step-by-step instructions
– Use of loops, conditions
-Procedures/functions

C, Pascal, Python (procedural)

Object-Oriented

Models real-world entities using objects that combine data and behaviour

– Classes and objects
– Encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism
– Modularity

Java, C++, Python (OOP)

Declarative

Describes what should be done, not how to do it

– Rule-based or logic-based
– No explicit control flow
– Focus on outcomes/results

SQL, Prolog, Haskell

Procedural

– Clear flow of control (top to bottom)
– Efficient for simple tasks
– Easy to implement algorithms
– Strong step-by-step logic

– Becomes hard to manage in large programs
– Poor modularity can lead to redundancy
– Not ideal for complex state-based systems

Object-Oriented

– Enhances modularity with encapsulation
– Real-world modelling via objects
– Code reuse through inheritance
– Polymorphism for flexible interfaces

– Can become overly complex
– Slower due to object overhead
– Misuse leads to bloated hierarchies
– Not ideal for every problem

Low-Level (Assembly)

– Complete control over hardware
– Highly optimised for performance
– Transparent view of machine operations

– Steep learning curve
– Hardware-specific, not portable
– Manual memory management is error-prone
– Difficult to debug/scale

Declarative

– Focuses on the result rather than the process
– Concise and expressive
– Suitable for complex logic or rule-based problems (e.g. AI, SQL queries)

– Harder to learn for beginners
– Less control over program flow
– Not suited for all types of problems
– Debugging can be challenging due to abstraction