light-dependent-reactions

Light-dependent Reactions

• Photosynthesis takes place in two distinct stages

  • The light-dependent reactions, which rely on light directly

  • The light-independent reactions, which do not use light directly, though do rely on the products of the light-dependent reactions

• Both these sets of reactions take place within the chloroplast

  • The light-dependent reactions take place across the thylakoid membrane

  • The light-independent reactions take place in the stroma

• Light energy in the light-dependent reactions enables the splitting of water molecules in a reaction known as photolysis

  • Photolysis of one molecule of water, or H₂O, produces

    • 2 hydrogen ions (2H⁺), also known as protons

    • 2 electrons (2e^–)

    • One atom of oxygen (O)

  • The hydrogen ions and electrons are used during the light-dependent reactions while the oxygen is given off as a waste product

• During the light-dependent reactions light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and reduced NADP

  • NADP is a type of molecule called a coenzyme; its role is to transfer hydrogen from one molecule to another

  • When NADP gains hydrogen, it is reduced and can be known as either reduced NADP or NADPH

  • Remember that

    • Reduction is gain of electrons, gain of hydrogen, or loss of oxygen

    • Oxidation is loss of electrons, loss of hydrogen, or gain of oxygen

  • Reduced NADP can reduce other molecules by giving away hydrogen

  • NADP can oxidise other molecules by receiving hydrogen

• The useful products of the light-dependent reactions, ATP and NADPH, are transferred to the light-independent reactions within the chloroplast

The products of the light-dependent reaction are ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. Oxygen is given off as a waste product while ATP and NADPH pass to the light-independent reactions. The ADP and NADP produced during the light-independent reaction can pass back to the light-dependent reactions to allow more ATP and NADPH to be produced.

Production of ATP and NADPH

• ATP and NADPH are produced during the light-dependent reactions as a result of a series of events that occur on the thylakoid membrane known as photophosphorylation

  • Photo = light

  • Phosphorylation = the addition of phosphate; in this case to ADP to form ATP

• Two types of photophosphorylation take place

  • Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

    • This produces both ATP and NADPH

  • Cyclic photophosphorylation

    • This produces ATP only

• Both cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation involve

  • A series of membrane proteins which together make up the electron transport chain

    • Electrons pass from one protein to another along the electron transport chain, releasing energy as they do so

  • Chemiosmosis

    • The energy released as electrons pass down the electron transport chain is used to produce ATP

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

• Light energy hits photosystem II in the thylakoid membrane 

  • It is slightly confusing that photosystem II comes first in this sequence; the numbers simply reflect the order in which the photosystems were discovered

• Two electrons gain energy and are said to be excited to a higher energy level 

• The excited electrons leave the photosystem and pass to the first protein in the electron transport chain

  • As the excited electrons leave photosystem II they are replaced by electrons from the photolysis of water

• The electrons pass down the chain of electron carriers known as an electron transport chain 

• Energy is released as the electrons pass down the electron transport chain which enables chemiosmosis to occur

  • H­­⁺ ions are pumped from a low concentration in the stroma to a high concentration in the thylakoid space, generating a concentration gradient across the thylakoid membrane 

  • H­­⁺ ions diffuse back across the thylakoid membrane into the stroma via ATP synthase enzymes embedded in the membrane

  • The movement of H­­⁺ ions causes the ATP synthase enzyme to catalyse the production of ATP

• At the end of the electron transport chain the electrons from photosystem II are passed to photosystem I

• Light energy also hits photosystem I, exciting another pair of electrons which leave the photosystem

• The excited electrons from photosystem I also pass along an electron transport chain

• These electrons combine with hydrogen ions from the photolysis of water and the coenzyme NADP to form reduced NADP

H⁺ + 2e^– + NADP⁺ → NADPH

• The reduced NADP and the ATP pass to the light-independent reactions 

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation involves photosystems I and II and produces both ATP and NADPH

Cyclic photophosphorylation

• Light hits photosystem I 

• Electrons are excited to a higher energy level and leave the photosystem

• The excited electrons pass along the electron transport chain, releasing energy as they do so

• The energy released as the electrons pass down the electron transport chain provides energy to drive the process of chemiosmosis

  • H­­⁺ ions are pumped from a low concentration in the stroma to a high concentration in the thylakoid space, generating a concentration gradient across the thylakoid membrane 

  • H­­⁺ ions diffuse back across the thylakoid membrane into the stroma via ATP synthase enzymes embedded in the membrane

  • The movement of H­­⁺ ions cause the ATP synthase enzyme to catalyse the production of ATP

• At the end of the electron transport chain the electrons rejoin photosystem I in a complete cycle; hence the term cyclic photophosphorylation

• The ATP produced enters the light-independent reaction

Cyclic photophosphorylation involves Photosystem I and produces ATP