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Biology_Edexcel_A-snab_Alevel

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  1. the-circulatory-system
    8 主题
  2. diet-and-health
    11 主题
  3. gas-exchange-cell-membranes-and-transport
    8 主题
  4. nucleic-acids
    3 主题
  5. proteins
    10 主题
  6. inheritance
    7 主题
  7. cell-structure-and-organisation
    7 主题
  8. cell-division
    3 主题
  9. reproduction-and-inheritance
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  10. differentiation-and-variation
    5 主题
  11. biodiversity
    9 主题
  12. resources-from-plants
    10 主题
  13. ecosystems-and-energy-transfer
    7 主题
  14. photosynthesis
    7 主题
  15. climate-change
    10 主题
  16. evolution
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  17. forensics
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  18. microorganisms-and-immunity
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  19. muscles-and-movement
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  20. respiration
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  21. homeostasis
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  22. exercise
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  23. response-to-the-environment
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  24. the-brain-behaviour-and-disease
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Hardy-Weinberg Equation

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

  • The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that if certain conditions are met, the allele frequencies of a gene within a population will not change from one generation to the next

  • There are several conditions or assumptions that must be met for the Hardy-Weinberg principle to hold true:

    • Mating must be random between individuals

    • The population is infinitely large

    • There is no migration, mutation or natural selection

  • The Hardy-Weinberg equation allows for the calculation of allele and genotype frequencies within populations

  • It also allows for predictions to be made about how these frequencies will change in future generations

  • If the allele frequencies in a population change over time, then it means that migration, mutation or natural selection has happened

Hardy-Weinberg calculations

  • If the phenotype of a trait in a population is determined by a single gene with only two alleles (we will use B / b as examples throughout this section), then the population will consist of individuals with three possible genotypes:

    • Homozygous dominant (BB)

    • Heterozygous (Bb)

    • Homozygous recessive (bb)

  •  When using the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the frequency of a genotype is represented as a proportion of the population

    • For example, the BB genotype could be 0.40

    • Whole population = 1

    • The letter p represents the frequency of the dominant allele (B)

    • The letter q represents the frequency of the recessive allele (b)

    • As there are only two alleles at a single gene locus for this phenotypic trait in the population:

p + q = 1

  • The chance of an individual being homozygous dominant is p2

    • In this instance, the offspring would inherit dominant alleles from both parents ( p x p = p2 )

  •  The chance of an individual being heterozygous is 2pq

    • Offspring could inherit a dominant allele from the father and a recessive allele from the mother ( p x q ) or offspring could inherit a dominant allele from the mother and a recessive allele from the father ( p x q ) = 2pq

  • The chance of an individual being homozygous recessive is q2 

    •  In this instance, the offspring would inherit recessive alleles from both parents ( q x q = q2 )

  • As these are all the possible genotypes of individuals in the population, the following equation can be constructed:

p2 + q2 + 2pq = 1

Worked Example

In a population of birds, 10% of the individuals exhibit the recessive phenotype of white feathers. Calculate the frequencies of all genotypes.

Answer:

  • We will use F / f to represent dominant and recessive alleles for feather colour

    • Those with the recessive phenotype must have the homozygous recessive genotype, ff

    • Therefore q2 = 0.10 (as 10% of the individuals have the recessive phenotype and q2 represents this)

To calculate the frequencies of the homozygous dominant ( p2 ) and heterozygous ( 2pq ):

Step 1: Find q

Natural Selection Hardy-Weinberg Principle Worked Example equation

Step 2: Find p (the frequency of the dominant allele F). If q = 0.32, and p + q = 1

p + q = 1

p = 1 – 0.32

p = 0.68

Step 3: Find p2 (the frequency of homozygous dominant genotype)

0.682 = 0.46

p2 = 0.46

Step 4: Find 2pq = 2 x (p) x (q)

2 x (0.68) x (0.32)

= 0.44

Step 5: Check calculations by substituting the values for the three frequencies into the equation; they should add up to 1

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

0.46 + 0.44 + 0.10 = 1

In summary:

  • Allele frequencies:

    • p = F = 0.68

    • q = f = 0.32

    • Genotype frequencies:

      • p2 = FF = 0.46

      • q2 = ff = 0.10

      • 2pq = Ff = 0.44

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When you are using Hardy-Weinberg equations, start your calculations by determining the proportion of individuals that display the recessive phenotype – you will always know the genotype for this: homozygous recessive. Remember that the dominant phenotype is seen in both homozygous dominant, and heterozygous individuals. Also, don’t mix up the Hardy-Weinberg equations with the Hardy-Weinberg principle. The equations are used to estimate the allele and genotype frequencies in a population. The principle suggests that there is an equilibrium between allele frequencies and there is no change in this between generations.