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Biology_A-level_Cie

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  1. 1-1-the-microscope-in-cell-studies
    5 主题
  2. 1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms
    5 主题
  3. 2-1-testing-for-biological-molecules
    3 主题
  4. 2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids
    8 主题
  5. 2-3-proteins
    6 主题
  6. 2-4-water
    2 主题
  7. 3-1-mode-of-action-of-enzymes
    5 主题
  8. 3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action
    8 主题
  9. 4-1-fluid-mosaic-membranes
    4 主题
  10. 4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells
    12 主题
  11. 5-1-replication-and-division-of-nuclei-and-cells
    6 主题
  12. 5-2-chromosome-behaviour-in-mitosis
    2 主题
  13. 6-1-structure-of-nucleic-acids-and-replication-of-dna
    4 主题
  14. 6-2-protein-synthesis
    5 主题
  15. 7-1-structure-of-transport-tissues
    4 主题
  16. 7-2-transport-mechanisms
    7 主题
  17. 8-1-the-circulatory-system
    7 主题
  18. 8-2-transport-of-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide
    5 主题
  19. 8-3-the-heart
    4 主题
  20. 9-1-the-gas-exchange-system
    6 主题
  21. 10-1-infectious-diseases
    3 主题
  22. 10-2-antibiotics
    3 主题
  23. 11-1-the-immune-system
    4 主题
  24. 11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination
    6 主题
  25. 12-1-energy
    5 主题
  26. 12-2-respiration
    11 主题
  27. 13-1-photosynthesis-as-an-energy-transfer-process
    8 主题
  28. 13-2-investigation-of-limiting-factors
    2 主题
  29. 14-1-homeostasis-in-mammals
    8 主题
  30. 14-2-homeostasis-in-plants
    3 主题
  31. 15-1-control-and-coordination-in-mammals
    12 主题
  32. 15-2-control-and-coordination-in-plants
    3 主题
  33. 16-1-passage-of-information-from-parents-to-offspring
    5 主题
  34. 16-2-the-roles-of-genes-in-determining-the-phenotype
    7 主题
  35. 16-3-gene-control
    3 主题
  36. 17-1-variation
    4 主题
  37. 17-2-natural-and-artificial-selection
    7 主题
  38. 17-3-evolution
    2 主题
  39. 18-1-classification
    5 主题
  40. 18-2-biodiversity
    7 主题
  41. 18-3-conservation
    6 主题
  42. 19-1-principles-of-genetic-technology
    11 主题
  43. 19-2-genetic-technology-applied-to-medicine
    4 主题
  44. 19-3-genetically-modified-organisms-in-agriculture
    2 主题
  45. 1-1-the-microscope-in-cell-studies
  46. 1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms
  47. 2-1-testing-for-biological-molecules
  48. 2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids
  49. 2-3-proteins
  50. 2-4-water
  51. 3-1-mode-of-action-of-enzymes
  52. 3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action
  53. 4-1-fluid-mosaic-membranes
  54. 4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells
  55. 5-1-replication-and-division-of-nuclei-and-cells
  56. 5-2-chromosome-behaviour-in-mitosis
  57. 6-1-structure-of-nucleic-acids-and-replication-of-dna
  58. 6-2-protein-synthesis
  59. 7-1-structure-of-transport-tissues
  60. 7-2-transport-mechanisms
  61. 8-1-the-circulatory-system
  62. 8-2-transport-of-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide
  63. 8-3-the-heart
  64. 9-1-the-gas-exchange-system
  65. 10-1-infectious-diseases
  66. 10-2-antibiotics
  67. 11-1-the-immune-system
  68. 11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination
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Use of monoclonal antibodies

Diagnostic uses of monoclonal antibodies

  • Monoclonal antibodies can be used diagnostically for:

    • Diagnosing HIV

    • Detecting the presence of pathogens such as Streptococcus bacteria

    • Distinguishing between Herpes I and Herpes II virus

    • Detecting cancer cells

  • Monoclonal antibodies can also be used to locate the position of blood clots for patients thought to have deep vein thrombosis

  • This occurs by:

    • Injecting a mouse with human fibrin (the main protein found in blood clots)

    • This activates the plasma cells to produce antibodies against fibrin

    • These cells are collected from the mouse spleen

    • The plasma cells are then fused with tumour cells forming hybridomas that produce antifibrin antibodies

    • To detect where the antibodies are binding to fibrin molecules, a radioactive chemical (producing gamma radiation) is attached to the antibodies making them radioactively labelled

    • A gamma-ray camera is used to detect where these radioactively labelled antibodies have attached to a fibrin molecule, hence indicating where blood clots can be found

  • Generally monoclonal antibodies are used only once

Flowchart of HIV detection using monoclonal antibodies shows antigen binding, introduction of enzyme-linked antibodies, and chromogen dye reaction.
Another example of the diagnostic use of monoclonal antibodies—test for HIV

Therapeutic uses of monoclonal antibodies

  • Therapeutically, monoclonal antibodies have multiple applications to include:

    • Treatment for the rabies virus, which can be potentially fatal

      • This is done by injecting purified antibodies

    • The prevention of transplanted organ rejection

      • This is done by intervening with the T-cells involved in the rejection process

    • Autoimmune therapies for allergic asthma and rheumatoid arthritis

      • Monoclonal antibodies are able to bind and deactivate factors involved in the inflammatory response

    • Treatment for diseases caused by the overproduction or inappropriate production of B-cells (e.g. leukaemia, multiple sclerosis and myasthenia gravis)

      • The antibody (rituximab) binds to cell surface receptor proteins on B-cells (not plasma cells) and causes the death of the cells

    • Prevention of blood clotting following angioplasty procedures

      • Monoclonal antibodies bind to receptors on the platelet surface thereby inhibiting fibrinogen from binding and subsequent clotting from ensuing

    • Targeted treatment of breast cancer

      • Herceptin is a monoclonal antibody used to treat breast cancer

      • It recognises receptor proteins on the surface of cancer cells and binds to them allowing the immune system to identify and destroy them

    • Treatment of melanoma (a type of skin cancer)

      • The antibody (ipilimumab) binds to a protein produced by T-cells (whose role is to reduce the immune response)

      • This results in the immune system remaining active against the cancer cells

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You do not need to know all the details for each example given on this page but you need to know specific examples of how monoclonal antibodies can be used as a diagnostic tool and for treatment. You can use a well-annotated diagram to explain how monoclonal antibodies can be used as a diagnostic tool.