Biology AS CIE
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1-cell-structure10 主题
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1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms AS viruses
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1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms AS prokaryotic-v-eukaryotic-cells
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1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms AS the-vital-role-of-atp
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1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms AS animal-and-plant-cells
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1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms AS eukaryotic-cell-structures-and-functions
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1-1-the-microscope-in-cell-studies AS calculating-actual-size
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1-1-the-microscope-in-cell-studies AS resolution-and-magnification
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1-1-the-microscope-in-cell-studies AS eyepiece-graticules-and-stage-micrometers
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1-1-the-microscope-in-cell-studies AS magnification-calculations
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1-1-the-microscope-in-cell-studies AS the-microscope-in-cell-studies
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1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms AS viruses
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2-biological-molecules19 主题
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2-4-water AS water-and-the-hydrogen-bond
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2-4-water AS the-role-of-water-in-living-organisms
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2-3-proteins AS collagen
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2-3-proteins AS haemoglobin
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2-3-proteins AS globular-and-fibrous-proteins
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2-3-proteins AS protein-shape
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2-3-proteins AS the-four-levels-of-protein-structure
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2-3-proteins AS amino-acids-and-the-peptide-bond
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2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids AS phospholipids
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2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids AS triglycerides
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2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids AS cellulose
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2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids AS starch-and-glycogen
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2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids AS the-glycosidic-bond
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2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids AS reducing-and-non-reducing-sugars
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2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids AS covalent-bonds-in-polymers
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2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids AS biological-molecules-key-terms
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2-1-testing-for-biological-molecules AS testing-for-non-reducing-sugars
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2-1-testing-for-biological-molecules AS the-benedicts-test
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2-1-testing-for-biological-molecules AS biological-molecule-tests
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2-4-water AS water-and-the-hydrogen-bond
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3-enzymes13 主题
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS enzyme-activity-immobilised-v-free
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS enzyme-inhibitors
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS vmax-and-the-michaelis-menten-constant
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS rate-inhibitor-concentration
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS rate-substrate-concentration
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS rate-enzyme-concentration
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS rate-ph
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS rate-temperature
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3-1-mode-of-action-of-enzymes AS colorimetry
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3-1-mode-of-action-of-enzymes AS measuring-enzyme-activity
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3-1-mode-of-action-of-enzymes AS how-enzymes-work
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3-1-mode-of-action-of-enzymes AS enzyme-action
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3-1-mode-of-action-of-enzymes AS enzymes
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3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action AS enzyme-activity-immobilised-v-free
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4-cell-membranes-and-transport16 主题
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS comparing-osmosis-in-plants-and-animals
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS osmosis-in-animals
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS osmosis-in-plant-cells
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS estimating-water-potential-in-plants
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS investigating-surface-area
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS surface-area-to-volume-ratios
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS investigating-diffusion
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS investigating-transport-processes-in-plants
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS endocytosis-and-exocytosis
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS active-transport
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS osmosis
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS diffusion
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4-1-fluid-mosaic-membranes AS cell-signalling
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4-1-fluid-mosaic-membranes AS the-cell-surface-membrane
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4-1-fluid-mosaic-membranes AS components-of-cell-surface-membranes
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4-1-fluid-mosaic-membranes AS the-fluid-mosaic-model
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4-2-movement-into-and-out-of-cells AS comparing-osmosis-in-plants-and-animals
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5-the-mitotic-cell-cycle8 主题
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5-2-chromosome-behaviour-in-mitosis AS observing-mitosis
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5-2-chromosome-behaviour-in-mitosis AS the-stages-of-mitosis
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5-1-replication-and-division-of-nuclei-and-cells AS how-tumours-form
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5-1-replication-and-division-of-nuclei-and-cells AS the-role-of-stem-cells
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5-1-replication-and-division-of-nuclei-and-cells AS the-role-of-telomeres-
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5-1-replication-and-division-of-nuclei-and-cells AS the-cell-cycle
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5-1-replication-and-division-of-nuclei-and-cells AS mitosis
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5-1-replication-and-division-of-nuclei-and-cells AS chromosome-structure
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5-2-chromosome-behaviour-in-mitosis AS observing-mitosis
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6-nucleic-acids-and-protein-synthesis9 主题
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6-2-protein-synthesis AS gene-mutations
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6-2-protein-synthesis AS transcription
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6-2-protein-synthesis AS constructing-polypeptides
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6-2-protein-synthesis AS the-universal-genetic-code
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6-2-protein-synthesis AS from-gene-to-polypeptide
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6-1-structure-of-nucleic-acids-and-replication-of-dna AS the-structure-of-rna
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6-1-structure-of-nucleic-acids-and-replication-of-dna AS semi-conservative-dna-replication
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6-1-structure-of-nucleic-acids-and-replication-of-dna AS the-structure-of-dna
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6-1-structure-of-nucleic-acids-and-replication-of-dna AS nucleotides
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6-2-protein-synthesis AS gene-mutations
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7-transport-in-plants11 主题
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7-2-transport-mechanisms AS phloem-mass-flow
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7-2-transport-mechanisms AS the-sucrose-loading-mechanism
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7-2-transport-mechanisms AS movement-in-the-phloem
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7-2-transport-mechanisms AS xerophytic-plant-leaf-adaptations
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7-2-transport-mechanisms AS water-and-the-transpiration-pull
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7-2-transport-mechanisms AS transpiration-in-plants
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7-2-transport-mechanisms AS water-and-mineral-ion-transport-in-plants
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7-1-structure-of-transport-tissues AS phloem-sieve-tube-elements
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7-1-structure-of-transport-tissues AS xylem-vessels-elements
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7-1-structure-of-transport-tissues AS xylem-and-phloem-distribution
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7-1-structure-of-transport-tissues AS plant-transverse-sections
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7-2-transport-mechanisms AS phloem-mass-flow
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8-transport-in-mammals16 主题
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8-3-the-heart AS heart-action
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8-3-the-heart AS the-cardiac-cycle
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8-3-the-heart AS the-walls-of-the-heart
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8-3-the-heart AS structure-of-the-heart
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8-2-transport-of-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide AS the-bohr-shift
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8-2-transport-of-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide AS the-oxygen-dissociation-curve
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8-2-transport-of-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide AS plasma-and-carbon-dioxide
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8-2-transport-of-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide AS the-chloride-shift
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8-2-transport-of-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide AS red-blood-cells-haemoglobin-and-oxygen
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8-1-the-circulatory-system AS blood-tissue-fluid-and-lymph
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8-1-the-circulatory-system AS the-role-of-water-in-circulation
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8-1-the-circulatory-system AS cells-of-the-blood
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8-1-the-circulatory-system AS blood-vessels-structures-and-functions
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8-1-the-circulatory-system AS observing-and-drawing-blood-vessels
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8-1-the-circulatory-system AS the-main-blood-vessels
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8-1-the-circulatory-system AS circulatory-systems
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8-3-the-heart AS heart-action
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9-gas-exchange6 主题
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9-1-the-gas-exchange-system AS gas-exchange-processes
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9-1-the-gas-exchange-system AS structures-and-functions-of-the-gas-exchange-system
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9-1-the-gas-exchange-system AS recognising-structures
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9-1-the-gas-exchange-system AS recognising-tissues
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9-1-the-gas-exchange-system AS distribution-of-tissues
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9-1-the-gas-exchange-system AS the-human-gas-exchange-system
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9-1-the-gas-exchange-system AS gas-exchange-processes
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10-infectious-diseases6 主题
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11-immunity10 主题
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11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination AS vaccination-to-control-disease
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11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination AS how-vaccines-work
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11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination AS types-of-immunity
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11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination AS uses-of-monoclonal-antibodies
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11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination AS making-monoclonal-antibodies
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11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination AS antibodies
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11-1-the-immune-system AS memory-cells-and-immunity
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11-1-the-immune-system AS primary-immune-response
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11-1-the-immune-system AS antigens
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11-1-the-immune-system AS phagocytes
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11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination AS vaccination-to-control-disease
11-2-antibodies-and-vaccination AS uses-of-monoclonal-antibodies
Exam code:9700
Use of monoclonal antibodies
Diagnostic uses of monoclonal antibodies
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Monoclonal antibodies can be used diagnostically for:
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Diagnosing HIV
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Detecting the presence of pathogens such as Streptococcus bacteria
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Distinguishing between Herpes I and Herpes II virus
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Detecting cancer cells
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Monoclonal antibodies can also be used to locate the position of blood clots for patients thought to have deep vein thrombosis
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This occurs by:
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Injecting a mouse with human fibrin (the main protein found in blood clots)
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This activates the plasma cells to produce antibodies against fibrin
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These cells are collected from the mouse spleen
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The plasma cells are then fused with tumour cells forming hybridomas that produce antifibrin antibodies
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To detect where the antibodies are binding to fibrin molecules, a radioactive chemical (producing gamma radiation) is attached to the antibodies making them radioactively labelled
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A gamma-ray camera is used to detect where these radioactively labelled antibodies have attached to a fibrin molecule, hence indicating where blood clots can be found
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Generally monoclonal antibodies are used only once
Therapeutic uses of monoclonal antibodies
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Therapeutically, monoclonal antibodies have multiple applications to include:
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Treatment for the rabies virus, which can be potentially fatal
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This is done by injecting purified antibodies
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The prevention of transplanted organ rejection
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This is done by intervening with the T-cells involved in the rejection process
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Autoimmune therapies for allergic asthma and rheumatoid arthritis
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Monoclonal antibodies are able to bind and deactivate factors involved in the inflammatory response
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Treatment for diseases caused by the overproduction or inappropriate production of B-cells (e.g. leukaemia, multiple sclerosis and myasthenia gravis)
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The antibody (rituximab) binds to cell surface receptor proteins on B-cells (not plasma cells) and causes the death of the cells
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Prevention of blood clotting following angioplasty procedures
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Monoclonal antibodies bind to receptors on the platelet surface thereby inhibiting fibrinogen from binding and subsequent clotting from ensuing
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Targeted treatment of breast cancer
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Herceptin is a monoclonal antibody used to treat breast cancer
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It recognises receptor proteins on the surface of cancer cells and binds to them allowing the immune system to identify and destroy them
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Treatment of melanoma (a type of skin cancer)
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The antibody (ipilimumab) binds to a protein produced by T-cells (whose role is to reduce the immune response)
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This results in the immune system remaining active against the cancer cells
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Examiner Tips and Tricks
You do not need to know all the details for each example given on this page but you need to know specific examples of how monoclonal antibodies can be used as a diagnostic tool and for treatment. You can use a well-annotated diagram to explain how monoclonal antibodies can be used as a diagnostic tool.
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